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Thursday, June 30, 2011

Dealing with Plant Wilt

Wilting plants often grab your attention when you patrol your garden, but the cause and control are often misunderstood. So here's a quick quiz. Which of these common plant issues can cause a plant to wilt: not enough water; too much water; not enough sun; too much sun?

My guess is you picked out not enough water and too much sun right away, but those are only two of the potential culprits. In reality, all four can cause plant wilt, in addition to disease, poor root growth, low temperatures, and incorrect fertilization.

During the heat of summer, many garden plants show their discomfort by sagging and losing the rigidity in their stems and leaves. It makes the plant look sad and evokes the same emotion in gardeners. Wilting is caused by a reduction of water in the plant cells. Many people know this so the first reaction of many gardeners is to add water to "make the plant better" whenever they see it wilting. Without full analysis you may actually harm the plant with that course of action.

A wilting tomato plant

Plants require water for virtually every function of life. It cycles through the plant cells in very efficient machinery. Little cells in the leaves (the stomata) open and close to regulate the flow of water vapor and carbon dioxide. Through transpiration the cells open, releasing water vapor from the leaves. That creates a pressure imbalance so more water is drawn up from the roots to replace it. That's how nutrients and water move from the roots to the rest of the plant.

When a plant senses a harsh and potentially harmful condition, like excessive sunlight and heat, the stomata will close, effectively shutting down the conveyor system and no more water flows to the plant structure. The result is what we interpret as wilt. This is not necessarily a bad thing. The plant is in protection mode. It's trying to keep water in its cells by limiting what it loses to the air. Once conditions improve, like less heat, the stomata open up again and the flow resumes. The plant is erect again.

Wilting is a perfectly normal reaction to the stress of the day. Many plants droop in the afternoon and pop back into shape as the sun moves lower in the sky. It doesn't harm the plant and as long as other conditions are fine, there's nothing you should do to "fix" it.

That's why analysis is needed with wilting plants. Stick your finger in the soil during the hot summer day when you see wilting. If the soil is still moist, or at least not bone dry, it is normal and the plant is just taking a break from dry and hot air. There's enough moisture in the soil for the roots, the plant is choosing to shut down transpiration to avoid excessive moisture loss. No extra water from you is needed and the plant will bounce back later.

If your finger reveals a complete lack of moisture, it may be time to water. That won't reverse the wilt immediately, but will add much-needed water to the soil. The plant probably closed its stomata normally because of the hot day and that same heat dried out the soil. When it's ready to resume transpiration the stomata will open and it will begin drawing moisture from the soil. In that case, watering when you see wilt and dry soil can help.

Watering dry soil helped the same plant bounce back

If your finger reveals a soggy or over-watered soil, you may have identified a cause of the wilting. For transpiration and the flow of water through the plant to work effectively, the roots need to be functioning properly. Roots that are drowning in water may be damaged, killed, or at least adversely affected. The stomata may be open, but if the roots aren't capable of supplying moisture because they are struggling, the cell moisture imbalance will result in wilting. This is when watering makes a bad situation worse. Many houseplants that die from overwatering succumb to this cycle of the gardener watering because the plant is wilting.

Too little sunlight can cause a similar plant reaction. Some plants may wilt when they aren't receiving enough sunlight because stomata also play a role in photosynthesis. Watering wilting plants in the shade may be inducing a situation where you add too much water to the roots. In this case knowing your plants becomes important. Sun-loving plants shouldn't be planted in the shade.

If there isn't enough water in the soil and roots to replace what is lost through transpiration when the stomata do open again, the wilting can reach the point where the physical structure of the plant cells are damaged. In that case, watering will not reverse the wilting; the plant is not able to revitalize the damaged tissue. This is when the wilted leaves turn brown and die. If enough leaves and plant tissue is lost the plant will die.

Excessive heat and dry soil caused leaf damage in this pepper

Cold temperatures can also cause the same type of tissue damage. In the fall, cold nights cause wilting and eventually the cold causes cell damage. Brown leaves and dead plants mark the end of the season.

A couple other factors are over-fertilization and disease. When you apply too much fertilizer you can create an imbalance in the plant's growth rate forcing the roots and stomata to work themselves to death; the root structure may not be able to support the plant growth and the lack of water movement causes wilting.

Some plant diseases cause wilt (often seen in tomatoes); there are usually other signs associated with this type of wilt and sprays and powders that can help when you identify it. If your soil is good, your water practice is good, and the plant doesn't recover under cool conditions, the wilting may be due to a fungal disease. Researching the plant, and it's susceptibility to wilting diseases, can help you take appropriate control measures.

There are a few things you can do to reduce harmful wilting. The best control is maintaining consistent soil conditions. If an organically-enriched soil is constantly at an appropriate moisture level through efficient watering and mulching practices, the plant will have the water when it needs it.You won't need to worry about plant damage even when the plant looks stressed during the heat of summer.

Knowing your plants and selecting heat and sun loving plants for hot and dry conditions is good. Plants that have a natural tolerance to heat stress may show no sign of wilting even in extreme conditions. Xeric plants are in this category. Plant tags, plant catalogs, and online resources will often identify how much sun and how much water a plant requires. Matching the plant with the appropriate location is always the best planting practice.

Most importantly, don't automatically reach for the garden hose when you see wilting. In addition to the root issues I discussed above, spraying the leaves can cool the air temperature and cause the stomata to open. If there isn't enough moisture accumulated in the roots or soil, you will force the plant to lose water from its cells and that may be enough to cause irreparable damage.

Once you understand wilting and realize it's nothing that requires overreaction, you can relax and actually enjoy watching the natural process. Seeing a plant recover from the sad state of wilt to a fully erect display of health in just a few hours is an amazing thing.
Wilting plants often grab your attention when you patrol your garden, but the cause and control are often misunderstood. So here's a quick quiz. Which of these common plant issues can cause a plant to wilt: not enough water; too much water; not enough sun; too much sun?

My guess is you picked out not enough water and too much sun right away, but those are only two of the potential culprits. In reality, all four can cause plant wilt, in addition to disease, poor root growth, low temperatures, and incorrect fertilization.

During the heat of summer, many garden plants show their discomfort by sagging and losing the rigidity in their stems and leaves. It makes the plant look sad and evokes the same emotion in gardeners. Wilting is caused by a reduction of water in the plant cells. Many people know this so the first reaction of many gardeners is to add water to "make the plant better" whenever they see it wilting. Without full analysis you may actually harm the plant with that course of action.

A wilting tomato plant

Plants require water for virtually every function of life. It cycles through the plant cells in very efficient machinery. Little cells in the leaves (the stomata) open and close to regulate the flow of water vapor and carbon dioxide. Through transpiration the cells open, releasing water vapor from the leaves. That creates a pressure imbalance so more water is drawn up from the roots to replace it. That's how nutrients and water move from the roots to the rest of the plant.

When a plant senses a harsh and potentially harmful condition, like excessive sunlight and heat, the stomata will close, effectively shutting down the conveyor system and no more water flows to the plant structure. The result is what we interpret as wilt. This is not necessarily a bad thing. The plant is in protection mode. It's trying to keep water in its cells by limiting what it loses to the air. Once conditions improve, like less heat, the stomata open up again and the flow resumes. The plant is erect again.

Wilting is a perfectly normal reaction to the stress of the day. Many plants droop in the afternoon and pop back into shape as the sun moves lower in the sky. It doesn't harm the plant and as long as other conditions are fine, there's nothing you should do to "fix" it.

That's why analysis is needed with wilting plants. Stick your finger in the soil during the hot summer day when you see wilting. If the soil is still moist, or at least not bone dry, it is normal and the plant is just taking a break from dry and hot air. There's enough moisture in the soil for the roots, the plant is choosing to shut down transpiration to avoid excessive moisture loss. No extra water from you is needed and the plant will bounce back later.

If your finger reveals a complete lack of moisture, it may be time to water. That won't reverse the wilt immediately, but will add much-needed water to the soil. The plant probably closed its stomata normally because of the hot day and that same heat dried out the soil. When it's ready to resume transpiration the stomata will open and it will begin drawing moisture from the soil. In that case, watering when you see wilt and dry soil can help.

Watering dry soil helped the same plant bounce back

If your finger reveals a soggy or over-watered soil, you may have identified a cause of the wilting. For transpiration and the flow of water through the plant to work effectively, the roots need to be functioning properly. Roots that are drowning in water may be damaged, killed, or at least adversely affected. The stomata may be open, but if the roots aren't capable of supplying moisture because they are struggling, the cell moisture imbalance will result in wilting. This is when watering makes a bad situation worse. Many houseplants that die from overwatering succumb to this cycle of the gardener watering because the plant is wilting.

Too little sunlight can cause a similar plant reaction. Some plants may wilt when they aren't receiving enough sunlight because stomata also play a role in photosynthesis. Watering wilting plants in the shade may be inducing a situation where you add too much water to the roots. In this case knowing your plants becomes important. Sun-loving plants shouldn't be planted in the shade.

If there isn't enough water in the soil and roots to replace what is lost through transpiration when the stomata do open again, the wilting can reach the point where the physical structure of the plant cells are damaged. In that case, watering will not reverse the wilting; the plant is not able to revitalize the damaged tissue. This is when the wilted leaves turn brown and die. If enough leaves and plant tissue is lost the plant will die.

Excessive heat and dry soil caused leaf damage in this pepper

Cold temperatures can also cause the same type of tissue damage. In the fall, cold nights cause wilting and eventually the cold causes cell damage. Brown leaves and dead plants mark the end of the season.

A couple other factors are over-fertilization and disease. When you apply too much fertilizer you can create an imbalance in the plant's growth rate forcing the roots and stomata to work themselves to death; the root structure may not be able to support the plant growth and the lack of water movement causes wilting.

Some plant diseases cause wilt (often seen in tomatoes); there are usually other signs associated with this type of wilt and sprays and powders that can help when you identify it. If your soil is good, your water practice is good, and the plant doesn't recover under cool conditions, the wilting may be due to a fungal disease. Researching the plant, and it's susceptibility to wilting diseases, can help you take appropriate control measures.

There are a few things you can do to reduce harmful wilting. The best control is maintaining consistent soil conditions. If an organically-enriched soil is constantly at an appropriate moisture level through efficient watering and mulching practices, the plant will have the water when it needs it.You won't need to worry about plant damage even when the plant looks stressed during the heat of summer.

Knowing your plants and selecting heat and sun loving plants for hot and dry conditions is good. Plants that have a natural tolerance to heat stress may show no sign of wilting even in extreme conditions. Xeric plants are in this category. Plant tags, plant catalogs, and online resources will often identify how much sun and how much water a plant requires. Matching the plant with the appropriate location is always the best planting practice.

Most importantly, don't automatically reach for the garden hose when you see wilting. In addition to the root issues I discussed above, spraying the leaves can cool the air temperature and cause the stomata to open. If there isn't enough moisture accumulated in the roots or soil, you will force the plant to lose water from its cells and that may be enough to cause irreparable damage.

Once you understand wilting and realize it's nothing that requires overreaction, you can relax and actually enjoy watching the natural process. Seeing a plant recover from the sad state of wilt to a fully erect display of health in just a few hours is an amazing thing.

Friday, June 24, 2011

Wildfires Devastate More Than Trees

As I write this, the largest wildfire in Arizona history has burned more than 800 square miles. It is one of three major fires roaring through that state and nearby New Mexico. Crews are expected to contain one of them soon, a 350 square mile fire, but only because the fuel is gone. Entire forests have been destroyed and there's nothing left to burn.

Nine years ago Colorado experienced its worst fire in state history, the Hayman fire. It burned 138,000 acres over 20 days, destroyed 132 homes, and led to the death of six people.

My wife and I camped last weekend near the northern edge of that fire's legacy. The site along Buffalo Creek is nestled under massive Ponderosa pine trees in the heart of Pike National Forest. We enjoyed a quick hike to join the Colorado Trail, watching squirrels and chipmunks scamper among the rocks, bushes, and trees. Our young Yellow Lab Lily eagerly ran beside us as we enjoyed all that nature bestowed. Friends joined us for dinner and it became an enchanting evening under the stars with the wind blowing through the trees encouraging the towering branches to dance and sway.

The following morning my wife thumbed through our favorite campground guide for a new location to try on our next excursion. We've camped at Buffalo Campground before, and enjoy it, but are always eager to find fresh and rewarding camping experiences. She found a likely candidate in Goose Creek. It wasn't much of a diversion on our trip home so we decided to check it out.

Exiting the state highway, we traveled 11 miles on a dirt and gravel road. Eleven miles through forest that the Hayman fire hadn't spared. I use the term forest only because it is technically still part of the Pike National Forest, though it doesn't exist as a forest in the conventional sense. I could call it a forest of arboreal grave markers or a forest of blackened spires, but that is too poetic.

A portion of the Hayman fire burn area
There is nothing poetic about the devastation we witnessed for those 11 miles. We'd commented to each other about the fire on every previous trip into Pike Forest; you could see endless burned trees from the main state highway. But this journey into the heart of the destruction was gut wrenching. Thinking about it generates a physical reaction again.

Charred stumps still remain along the narrow, washboard road. I tried to imagine how this trek would differ a decade earlier. In places the road wasn't wide enough for two vehicles and the long branches from ancient trees on either side must have touched to form an evergreen canopy. The cool of the forest on hot summer days must have made this a marvelous place. The beauty would have been breathtaking, as it is in so many spots in Colorado.

But all of that is gone. The campground stands as an oasis in the desert of blackened stumps. Closed for years because of concerns about flooding, it is open again. The flooding concerns were because of the Hayman fire. With the trees and brush gone there was nothing to slow the rush of rain as it built to torrents that collected fire debris and rushed through the mountain valleys. Minimal growth of a few grasses and sparse groundcover must be enough to alleviate those fears now.

The historic fire miraculously spared this campground of only ten campsites, nestled among living trees along a stone-filled creek. Inside the campground we were surrounded by green, the murmur of the cascading water, life, and typical Colorado beauty, but it doesn't extend beyond this minuscule enclave. We stopped to investigate and talk with the verbose campground host. After commenting on his duties, the beauty of the site, and ignorant campers, the conversation naturally turned to fire, the fires of today and the great fire of nine years ago. It was unavoidable.

You might be able to ignore spinach in the teeth, a nervous tic, or a bad haircut when conversing with a new acquaintance, but there is no ignoring wildfire devastation. Eleven miles of depressing visions that extend to each horizon is too much to disregard.

The camp host had just come from cleaning up a site with a smoldering fire pit. When he shoveled the ashes into his plastic bucket they melted the bottom. I could only shake my head and cringe in shock. These uneducated, lazy, or criminally negligent campers left without completely dousing their fire. The Hayman fire began with a burning piece of paper in a fire ring at an official campground. The only upside might be that if their negligence were to start a new fire it would only burn this campground; there's nothing left to burn outside it. But I don't consider that much of a positive point.

Our area of the state is under severe outdoor fire restrictions. The county just south of these two campgrounds has banned all outdoor fire to include cigarettes. Lack of rain, exceptionally dry grass, and high winds seem to be the daily rule. Colorado Springs has received only 15 percent of the precipitation we should have for the month; our yearly total is a third of normal. Everyone talks about the weather.

You might think that people, particularly campers, would be extra vigilant during times like these. That is true for many, but there are always the few who flaunt disdain for the restrictions. The road to Buffalo Campground was lined with campers who didn't want to pay to stay in the official campground and who burned open fires in violation of a ban. That campground host told me the sheriff was making regular rounds up and down the road handing out $500 tickets.

Bans, obvious devastation a few miles down the road, and expensive citations aren't enough to influence some of the population. If a legal fire is left smoldering, I have to wonder if an illegal one amid the expanding trash piles that line our forest thoroughfares is properly extinguished.

Accidentally starting a wildfire, like every other ignorant act, is something that always happens to the other guy. As our country dries to a crisp I think about how many "other guys" are playing Russian roulette with the future of our national forests by disregarding campfire etiquette.

I'll be long gone before the land that encompasses the Hayman fire burn area and the new ones in Arizona ever recover. Those are places I'll never be able to take my grandchildren to enjoy the beauty of nature. We enjoy Buffalo Creek and many other Colorado campgrounds now, but wonder how long they will stay viable and how soon it may be that we experience an epic fire again. My wife and I are doing what we can by limiting fires, burning only in designated fire rings, and ensuring the fire is out, completely, before abandoning it. By taking such actions I'd like to think I'm in the overwhelming majority, but I don't have a good feeling about that.


 
As I write this, the largest wildfire in Arizona history has burned more than 800 square miles. It is one of three major fires roaring through that state and nearby New Mexico. Crews are expected to contain one of them soon, a 350 square mile fire, but only because the fuel is gone. Entire forests have been destroyed and there's nothing left to burn.

Nine years ago Colorado experienced its worst fire in state history, the Hayman fire. It burned 138,000 acres over 20 days, destroyed 132 homes, and led to the death of six people.

My wife and I camped last weekend near the northern edge of that fire's legacy. The site along Buffalo Creek is nestled under massive Ponderosa pine trees in the heart of Pike National Forest. We enjoyed a quick hike to join the Colorado Trail, watching squirrels and chipmunks scamper among the rocks, bushes, and trees. Our young Yellow Lab Lily eagerly ran beside us as we enjoyed all that nature bestowed. Friends joined us for dinner and it became an enchanting evening under the stars with the wind blowing through the trees encouraging the towering branches to dance and sway.

The following morning my wife thumbed through our favorite campground guide for a new location to try on our next excursion. We've camped at Buffalo Campground before, and enjoy it, but are always eager to find fresh and rewarding camping experiences. She found a likely candidate in Goose Creek. It wasn't much of a diversion on our trip home so we decided to check it out.

Exiting the state highway, we traveled 11 miles on a dirt and gravel road. Eleven miles through forest that the Hayman fire hadn't spared. I use the term forest only because it is technically still part of the Pike National Forest, though it doesn't exist as a forest in the conventional sense. I could call it a forest of arboreal grave markers or a forest of blackened spires, but that is too poetic.

A portion of the Hayman fire burn area
There is nothing poetic about the devastation we witnessed for those 11 miles. We'd commented to each other about the fire on every previous trip into Pike Forest; you could see endless burned trees from the main state highway. But this journey into the heart of the destruction was gut wrenching. Thinking about it generates a physical reaction again.

Charred stumps still remain along the narrow, washboard road. I tried to imagine how this trek would differ a decade earlier. In places the road wasn't wide enough for two vehicles and the long branches from ancient trees on either side must have touched to form an evergreen canopy. The cool of the forest on hot summer days must have made this a marvelous place. The beauty would have been breathtaking, as it is in so many spots in Colorado.

But all of that is gone. The campground stands as an oasis in the desert of blackened stumps. Closed for years because of concerns about flooding, it is open again. The flooding concerns were because of the Hayman fire. With the trees and brush gone there was nothing to slow the rush of rain as it built to torrents that collected fire debris and rushed through the mountain valleys. Minimal growth of a few grasses and sparse groundcover must be enough to alleviate those fears now.

The historic fire miraculously spared this campground of only ten campsites, nestled among living trees along a stone-filled creek. Inside the campground we were surrounded by green, the murmur of the cascading water, life, and typical Colorado beauty, but it doesn't extend beyond this minuscule enclave. We stopped to investigate and talk with the verbose campground host. After commenting on his duties, the beauty of the site, and ignorant campers, the conversation naturally turned to fire, the fires of today and the great fire of nine years ago. It was unavoidable.

You might be able to ignore spinach in the teeth, a nervous tic, or a bad haircut when conversing with a new acquaintance, but there is no ignoring wildfire devastation. Eleven miles of depressing visions that extend to each horizon is too much to disregard.

The camp host had just come from cleaning up a site with a smoldering fire pit. When he shoveled the ashes into his plastic bucket they melted the bottom. I could only shake my head and cringe in shock. These uneducated, lazy, or criminally negligent campers left without completely dousing their fire. The Hayman fire began with a burning piece of paper in a fire ring at an official campground. The only upside might be that if their negligence were to start a new fire it would only burn this campground; there's nothing left to burn outside it. But I don't consider that much of a positive point.

Our area of the state is under severe outdoor fire restrictions. The county just south of these two campgrounds has banned all outdoor fire to include cigarettes. Lack of rain, exceptionally dry grass, and high winds seem to be the daily rule. Colorado Springs has received only 15 percent of the precipitation we should have for the month; our yearly total is a third of normal. Everyone talks about the weather.

You might think that people, particularly campers, would be extra vigilant during times like these. That is true for many, but there are always the few who flaunt disdain for the restrictions. The road to Buffalo Campground was lined with campers who didn't want to pay to stay in the official campground and who burned open fires in violation of a ban. That campground host told me the sheriff was making regular rounds up and down the road handing out $500 tickets.

Bans, obvious devastation a few miles down the road, and expensive citations aren't enough to influence some of the population. If a legal fire is left smoldering, I have to wonder if an illegal one amid the expanding trash piles that line our forest thoroughfares is properly extinguished.

Accidentally starting a wildfire, like every other ignorant act, is something that always happens to the other guy. As our country dries to a crisp I think about how many "other guys" are playing Russian roulette with the future of our national forests by disregarding campfire etiquette.

I'll be long gone before the land that encompasses the Hayman fire burn area and the new ones in Arizona ever recover. Those are places I'll never be able to take my grandchildren to enjoy the beauty of nature. We enjoy Buffalo Creek and many other Colorado campgrounds now, but wonder how long they will stay viable and how soon it may be that we experience an epic fire again. My wife and I are doing what we can by limiting fires, burning only in designated fire rings, and ensuring the fire is out, completely, before abandoning it. By taking such actions I'd like to think I'm in the overwhelming majority, but I don't have a good feeling about that.


 

Wednesday, June 22, 2011

Preserve Your Garden in Jelly

Making jelly is one of my favorite activities and making jelly from my own harvest is about as good as it gets. I use the term broadly to encompass jam as well. I've made jam or jelly from my garden's grapes, apples, apricots, elderberries, raspberries, blackberries, strawberries, rhubarb, and even red bell peppers. It's easy and something every gardener should consider trying.

A beautiful batch of jelly

While growing your own produce is nice, farmer's markets abound during the summer and you don't need to rely on your own fruit production to enjoy the sweet flavors that jelly offers. We tend to buy with the intent to eat, and we often buy more than we need. A bushel of fresh peaches is hard to pass up when you grab a single fuzzy orb and smell the rich, ripe aromas bursting from it. Before you know it a few days have gone by and you're stuffed from the peaches you put in pie, on your ice cream, and in your oatmeal. There are always too many peaches left in the box that are bruised, squishy, or getting too ripe. The compost pile is usually their final resting place, but the jelly jar may be a better solution.

While fruit that you make into jam and jelly shouldn't be rotten, it can be bruised and squishy. Even overripe is okay. In a home garden it may be tough harvesting enough fruit for preserving in a single day, but over the course of a few days you can collect enough. While the physical quality may not be supreme for older fruit, it can be made into wonderful jellies.

Part of the process of making jelly is to cut and cook the fruit. By the time it has simmered in a pot, all of it is reduced to a slurry that reveals no bruising or unsightly dents, just fruity goodness.

Peaches in the pot

The main difference between jelly and jam is whether it has fruit in it or not. After you simmer the fruit it can take two courses:  to be put into a strainer or jelly bag that separates the juice from solid pulp so the juice can be made into jelly; or to remain in the pot and become jam. Jelly is made from just the fruit juice and jam is made with juice and pieces of fruit.

I do both and have favorites. I prefer grape jelly to grape jam, but I like strawberry jam more than strawberry jelly. Rhubarb jelly and elderberry jelly are better than the jams they make while blackberry and raspberry jams are better than their jellies. A lot of it comes down to texture and appearance, but at its core it's all about personal preference and each individual can decide what they prefer.

My peach jelly, jam, and marmalade

I encourage gardeners to make jellies because it's easy, cost-effective, and gives them an opportunity to enjoy their garden (or the farmer's market) at any time of year. In about an hour you can have six or seven jars of jelly that are less expensive than what you buy in the store and taste far superior.

The process is very basic. Take fruit, add packaged pectin, sugar, and maybe a little lemon juice, heat it in a pot, ladle it into jars, heat the jars, put a lid on the jars, and then store them in the pantry until you're ready to enjoy the delicious results.

Recipes for making jelly should always be used; don't wing it. The Ball company (maker of pectin, jars, and lids) produces the "Ball Blue Book", a great resource that shows you every step in the process and includes many great recipes. It should be a part of every gardener's library.

The reason that approved recipes (approved by the USDA, Extension service, or major manufacturer) should be used is all about food safety. Your grandmother's recipe may taste good, but it may not have enough sugar or acid to keep harmful bacteria out. We've learned a lot about food preservation in recent years and you don't need to worry about harming your family or yourself as long as you follow prescribed methods and formulas.

It helps to see someone else make jelly before you try it for the first time so I've made a video to help. It's a little intimidating the first time you do it but before long you'll become a pro. Making jam as a beginner is a little easier because you don't have the extra step of collecting the juice from the fruit, but both products are easy to make.

If you haven't made jelly before you should try it. If you have, you should keep doing it. While I love my compost pile, I'd rather see delicious fruit in a jelly jar than decomposing on the pile.

Take a look at my video:



Link to my YouTube video on making jelly.
Making jelly is one of my favorite activities and making jelly from my own harvest is about as good as it gets. I use the term broadly to encompass jam as well. I've made jam or jelly from my garden's grapes, apples, apricots, elderberries, raspberries, blackberries, strawberries, rhubarb, and even red bell peppers. It's easy and something every gardener should consider trying.

A beautiful batch of jelly

While growing your own produce is nice, farmer's markets abound during the summer and you don't need to rely on your own fruit production to enjoy the sweet flavors that jelly offers. We tend to buy with the intent to eat, and we often buy more than we need. A bushel of fresh peaches is hard to pass up when you grab a single fuzzy orb and smell the rich, ripe aromas bursting from it. Before you know it a few days have gone by and you're stuffed from the peaches you put in pie, on your ice cream, and in your oatmeal. There are always too many peaches left in the box that are bruised, squishy, or getting too ripe. The compost pile is usually their final resting place, but the jelly jar may be a better solution.

While fruit that you make into jam and jelly shouldn't be rotten, it can be bruised and squishy. Even overripe is okay. In a home garden it may be tough harvesting enough fruit for preserving in a single day, but over the course of a few days you can collect enough. While the physical quality may not be supreme for older fruit, it can be made into wonderful jellies.

Part of the process of making jelly is to cut and cook the fruit. By the time it has simmered in a pot, all of it is reduced to a slurry that reveals no bruising or unsightly dents, just fruity goodness.

Peaches in the pot

The main difference between jelly and jam is whether it has fruit in it or not. After you simmer the fruit it can take two courses:  to be put into a strainer or jelly bag that separates the juice from solid pulp so the juice can be made into jelly; or to remain in the pot and become jam. Jelly is made from just the fruit juice and jam is made with juice and pieces of fruit.

I do both and have favorites. I prefer grape jelly to grape jam, but I like strawberry jam more than strawberry jelly. Rhubarb jelly and elderberry jelly are better than the jams they make while blackberry and raspberry jams are better than their jellies. A lot of it comes down to texture and appearance, but at its core it's all about personal preference and each individual can decide what they prefer.

My peach jelly, jam, and marmalade

I encourage gardeners to make jellies because it's easy, cost-effective, and gives them an opportunity to enjoy their garden (or the farmer's market) at any time of year. In about an hour you can have six or seven jars of jelly that are less expensive than what you buy in the store and taste far superior.

The process is very basic. Take fruit, add packaged pectin, sugar, and maybe a little lemon juice, heat it in a pot, ladle it into jars, heat the jars, put a lid on the jars, and then store them in the pantry until you're ready to enjoy the delicious results.

Recipes for making jelly should always be used; don't wing it. The Ball company (maker of pectin, jars, and lids) produces the "
Ball Blue Book", a great resource that shows you every step in the process and includes many great recipes. It should be a part of every gardener's library.

The reason that approved recipes (approved by the USDA, Extension service, or major manufacturer) should be used is all about food safety. Your grandmother's recipe may taste good, but it may not have enough sugar or acid to keep harmful bacteria out. We've learned a lot about food preservation in recent years and you don't need to worry about harming your family or yourself as long as you follow prescribed methods and formulas.

It helps to see someone else make jelly before you try it for the first time so I've made a video to help. It's a little intimidating the first time you do it but before long you'll become a pro. Making jam as a beginner is a little easier because you don't have the extra step of collecting the juice from the fruit, but both products are easy to make.

If you haven't made jelly before you should try it. If you have, you should keep doing it. While I love my compost pile, I'd rather see delicious fruit in a jelly jar than decomposing on the pile.

Take a look at my video:



Link to my YouTube video on making jelly.

Monday, June 20, 2011

The Life of a Tree


A tree slowly inches upward as it lives in a previous time. As we respond to each day's heat or cold or wind or snow, the pine and maple and elm and oak take little notice of the brief event. To them it is the series of days and months and years of nature's forces that affect a life's journey. Trees live in the past.

A gardener rubs a callous after a hard day's digging in rocky ground, spots a new gray hair or three between summer haircuts, notes another toe on the crow's feet around our laughing eyes as we pose for a holiday portrait. We notice the new events on our physical frames as the tree sways unnoticed in the distance, climbing higher to the sky.

The stifling summer afternoon drives us to the cooling shade and a welcome respite with lemonade or sun-warmed ice tea. The protective tree creates the shade while it bears the full impact of the sun-drenched day. It has no respite.

We seldom notice or think about the punishing blows that the tree absorbs. A single day of staggering heat is but a pinprick to a mighty forest bastion. A sequence of weeks with heat and wind and lack of rain begins to wound the mighty arbor, but like the proud father before his worshiping children he shows neither pain nor discomfort.

A tree lives in the past. The growth we climb and photograph and hide under in the relentless heat is the result of the days it experienced two or three years before. It gathers the light and air and water of today to form energy in the complex formula of life and transports that energy deep down to the core of its roots. There it stays, added to yesterday's and last week's contributions. The roots grow and increasing vitality lies unused, yet waiting, in the yielding soil.

When the tree requires nutrition to add the leaves and needles to continue the cycle it draws on the stored reserves. The lengthening branches and towering crown pull from the root-borne sustenance. In days of heat and dry, it sups on the deposit from days of cool and wet. Once used, the energy is gone.

The cycle of storing and consuming continues for the life of the tree. The lengthy delay between the two assumes a balance will exist. It assumes that the force that congregates over many nameless months will be enough for the unforeseen future need. When the scale tips precipitously we do not notice and the tree does not proclaim.

As the stress of sun and drought reduce the energy deposit we enjoy the green and cool from many days earlier when the tree bathed in the rain. As the desiccating cycle continues we offer gratitude for the tree that provides us relief and shelter. The tree does not ask for anything, but the balance is broken.

When the rains fail to fall and the sun stokes the atmospheric furnace, the tree does not cry out in thirst and pain. When the arborial life-restoring machine slows in the parched air, the tree pulls from its core to show green and growth and to slake our need for coolness as it sacrifices itself. We curse the heat, praise the tree, and do not think to restore the shattered scales.

Is is later, much later, that we notice the sacrifice. A tree lives in the past. It is showing today what it experienced years ago. The tree knows it is weakened after long periods of want, insects and pests recognize its weakened state, but we assume all is well. Trees are tall, trees are strong, trees live longer than we. It is only when it is too late that we notice its faltering.

Few new needles, sparse leaves, wilting limbs, and brown replacing green are our first signs, but they are the postscript in the tree's diary. When we see damage and stress and pain, it is too late. Our action and aid will have little effect. Trees live in the past. The water we lavish today will reward the tree years from now, but to withdraw that deposit it must survive until then.

If we had audited the balance sheet when the scale tipped we could have forestalled the death. A tree will accumulate future growth as a function of its being. But if there is no water, there is no life-sustaining moisture to gather. The strongest roots breaking through granite will find no water if none exists. It will use the last of the liquid essence in its veins to grow and find more. This ultimate starvation is hidden from the casual observer.

It is only at the end of it's life after its core is laid open that we are able to witness how the tree reacted to its struggles. The ever expanding rings bear witness to each season and each battle and each yearly accrual, but always in the past.  We can trace the rings and find our wedding year, when our first child was born, and the point of the tree's death. That death is not in the thin final ring, but in the meager bands two and three prior.

As we duck from the pestering rain and remember the drought of a few years before, we study the ring on the stump that bears witness to months of stress when we were thirsty too. If old enough, we may recognize the large circles from the early days when we cared for it, watered it faithfully, and documented its growth. Like human children we know they reach a point when they can care for themselves. With age and stature comes responsibility for one's survival and we cease to nanny our children or the tree.

Trees can't ask for help when the pressures of life are too much. They can't scream in anguish. They can only show us their end in the throes of decline.

We live for today and look to tomorrow. A tree lives in the past and each day is only a show of its yesterdays.

A tree slowly inches upward as it lives in a previous time. As we respond to each day's heat or cold or wind or snow, the pine and maple and elm and oak take little notice of the brief event. To them it is the series of days and months and years of nature's forces that affect a life's journey. Trees live in the past.

A gardener rubs a callous after a hard day's digging in rocky ground, spots a new gray hair or three between summer haircuts, notes another toe on the crow's feet around our laughing eyes as we pose for a holiday portrait. We notice the new events on our physical frames as the tree sways unnoticed in the distance, climbing higher to the sky.

The stifling summer afternoon drives us to the cooling shade and a welcome respite with lemonade or sun-warmed ice tea. The protective tree creates the shade while it bears the full impact of the sun-drenched day. It has no respite.

We seldom notice or think about the punishing blows that the tree absorbs. A single day of staggering heat is but a pinprick to a mighty forest bastion. A sequence of weeks with heat and wind and lack of rain begins to wound the mighty arbor, but like the proud father before his worshiping children he shows neither pain nor discomfort.

A tree lives in the past. The growth we climb and photograph and hide under in the relentless heat is the result of the days it experienced two or three years before. It gathers the light and air and water of today to form energy in the complex formula of life and transports that energy deep down to the core of its roots. There it stays, added to yesterday's and last week's contributions. The roots grow and increasing vitality lies unused, yet waiting, in the yielding soil.

When the tree requires nutrition to add the leaves and needles to continue the cycle it draws on the stored reserves. The lengthening branches and towering crown pull from the root-borne sustenance. In days of heat and dry, it sups on the deposit from days of cool and wet. Once used, the energy is gone.

The cycle of storing and consuming continues for the life of the tree. The lengthy delay between the two assumes a balance will exist. It assumes that the force that congregates over many nameless months will be enough for the unforeseen future need. When the scale tips precipitously we do not notice and the tree does not proclaim.

As the stress of sun and drought reduce the energy deposit we enjoy the green and cool from many days earlier when the tree bathed in the rain. As the desiccating cycle continues we offer gratitude for the tree that provides us relief and shelter. The tree does not ask for anything, but the balance is broken.

When the rains fail to fall and the sun stokes the atmospheric furnace, the tree does not cry out in thirst and pain. When the arborial life-restoring machine slows in the parched air, the tree pulls from its core to show green and growth and to slake our need for coolness as it sacrifices itself. We curse the heat, praise the tree, and do not think to restore the shattered scales.

Is is later, much later, that we notice the sacrifice. A tree lives in the past. It is showing today what it experienced years ago. The tree knows it is weakened after long periods of want, insects and pests recognize its weakened state, but we assume all is well. Trees are tall, trees are strong, trees live longer than we. It is only when it is too late that we notice its faltering.

Few new needles, sparse leaves, wilting limbs, and brown replacing green are our first signs, but they are the postscript in the tree's diary. When we see damage and stress and pain, it is too late. Our action and aid will have little effect. Trees live in the past. The water we lavish today will reward the tree years from now, but to withdraw that deposit it must survive until then.

If we had audited the balance sheet when the scale tipped we could have forestalled the death. A tree will accumulate future growth as a function of its being. But if there is no water, there is no life-sustaining moisture to gather. The strongest roots breaking through granite will find no water if none exists. It will use the last of the liquid essence in its veins to grow and find more. This ultimate starvation is hidden from the casual observer.

It is only at the end of it's life after its core is laid open that we are able to witness how the tree reacted to its struggles. The ever expanding rings bear witness to each season and each battle and each yearly accrual, but always in the past.  We can trace the rings and find our wedding year, when our first child was born, and the point of the tree's death. That death is not in the thin final ring, but in the meager bands two and three prior.

As we duck from the pestering rain and remember the drought of a few years before, we study the ring on the stump that bears witness to months of stress when we were thirsty too. If old enough, we may recognize the large circles from the early days when we cared for it, watered it faithfully, and documented its growth. Like human children we know they reach a point when they can care for themselves. With age and stature comes responsibility for one's survival and we cease to nanny our children or the tree.

Trees can't ask for help when the pressures of life are too much. They can't scream in anguish. They can only show us their end in the throes of decline.

We live for today and look to tomorrow. A tree lives in the past and each day is only a show of its yesterdays.

Tuesday, June 14, 2011

Plan a Green Vacation

Summer is vacation time for many gardeners and their families, but there's no reason to abandon your concern for the environment and interest in gardening when you vacation. Modify your vacation plans slightly and you can discover a new and fascinating world on a green vacation.

"Green" has a number of meanings for a gardener. It's the obvious color of choice for strong plants, it's a synonym for someone young or inexperienced, and it identifies someone who cares about preserving and protecting the environment. With a little foresight and dedication, your travel plans can encompass all that "green" has to offer.

Let me offer an example. Last year my wife and I traveled to San Diego, California. Before we took our first step westward, we committed to minimizing our impact on the environment while maximizing our vacation experience. Our goal was to make it green, and in the process to enjoy that highlight.

We traveled west by train along with hundreds of other travelers who wanted to avoid airplanes or cars, wanted a cheaper transportation option, or, like us, wanted to sit back and enjoy the beautiful scenery that the desert Southwest displayed, like a never-ending art museum mural.

While diesel locomotives burn fossil fuel and emit exhaust, it is minimal compared to the total auto fuel and exhaust if each of the train passengers had traveled by auto. From that first mile to the last, we used public transportation, or our feet, to venture from one location to another. We never rented a car.

Taking the train

We planned our excursions based on the available transportation and what was within walking distance of our hotel or from a bus or train stop. There wasn't anything we wanted to do that we couldn't. Our hotel was within walking distance of the train station in San Diego. That was part of the original plan. We were two blocks from a major bus and tram hub. One of the first things we did was to purchase a multi-day public transportation pass.

What may be considered a limitation by some seasoned California travelers actually opened up new experiences for us. Both my wife and I have lived in California and have traveled extensively throughout its expansive area. Like most, we always drove the highways. Traveling by train opens up whole new vistas. Our public tram and bus ride from San Diego to La Hoya enabled us to travel city streets and routes and see architecture and scenery we would have otherwise missed, and the final beach destination was the same, regardless of the mode of travel. Our tram ride to the east county area to visit friends was eye-opening.

We walked to the bay and toured the USS Midway, a real aircraft carrier. Throughout the week we walked throughout the historic Gaslamp Quarter and enjoyed wonderful meals and people-watching. We walked to the Air & Space Museum to see one of a handful of SR-71 Blackbirds on display in the U.S. and one of only two Apollo space capsules west of the Rocky Mountains.

We walked to the San Diego Zoo and took the bus back. The walk allowed us to enjoy beautiful Balboa Park, to soak in the amazing gardens and architecture. We had our pick of 15 unique museums and a handful of wonderful restaurants. Our lunch at Prado was one of the best we had during the entire week in San Diego.

The zoo is a gardener's nirvana. It is divided into many different habitats for the respective animals, and the plants are authentic to those habitats. Unique flowers and bushes and trees abound. There was flora of every size and color to examine and touch that previously was only available as a picture in a book or online site. I enjoyed walking through forest recreations and discovering jaw-dropping plants more than seeing the animals.

San Diego Zoo from the aerial tram

The city of San Diego encourages beauty and every street in the downtown area exploded with plantings on the sidewalks, on building balconies, and in store and restaurant windows. The city's concrete, steel, and glass often disappeared momentarily because of an expanse of Bougainvillea or a lemon tree on a street corner.

A lemon tree on the sidewalk

We had begun developing our concept of a green vacation the year before with a trip to Seattle, Washington and Victoria, British Columbia. We walked extensively throughout each city, experiencing shops, museums, and eateries. We used a rental car, but with specific destinations in mind: to visit Butchart Gardens, a stunning experience and one of the premier garden destinations in the world; to drive through a rainforest on the way to the west coast of Vancouver Island; and to explore the lavender fields of northwestern Washington. All were amazing journeys, especially for someone who loves plants.

Exploring Butchart Gardens

This year we'll follow the green theme in France. The train will be our primary mode of transportation. As we venture around the country each of our lodging choices are close enough to the center of each  town that we'll be able to walk to the primary tourist interests. We plan to rent bicycles for excursions into the countryside. For the week we're in Paris we'll enjoy public transportation. We'll take it to Versailles to bask in the world-famous gardens. I selected our lodging because it's within walking distance of Notre Dame Cathedral, Georges Pompidou Center, and the Louvre.

Another green aspect on such a vacation is to eat local food whenever possible. Local vegetables, fruit, meat, or fish make a smaller environmental footprint than food that is trucked in from a distant source. And local food almost always tastes better than large restaurant chains.

We've found that planning and taking a green vacation has made them more enjoyable. Our creativity explodes. Instead of doing all of the mundane touristy things that everyone else is doing, we seek out unique offerings that you might only see when you're taking your time, walking, and enjoying the experience. It's easier to duck into a shop, museum, or garden when you're strolling along a sidewalk or path than it is when you're speeding down the highway.

Not to be hypocritical, we have taken and do take other, more traditional American vacations. They involve driving and fast food and touristy activities. There is a time and place for such things. But it seems we've gained much more satisfaction and enjoyment from the green ones. Maybe it was due to the awareness that our actions served a good, global purpose. Maybe it was because the green vacations included gardens as a destination. Maybe it was because we've slowed down in our old age and are literally smelling the roses.

My wife Janelle at Butchart Gardens

Whatever the reason, a green vacation is an idea I want to share. We told all of our friends about the first one and were met with amazement, awe, and applause. A natural reaction was that it must have been difficult. On the contrary, it was quite easy, so easy that everyone who vacations should try at least some aspect.

Take a train, take a bus, take a tram, ride a bike. Walk instead of driving. Eat local food. Visit gardens. Try green options as you slow down and enjoy the journey.
Summer is vacation time for many gardeners and their families, but there's no reason to abandon your concern for the environment and interest in gardening when you vacation. Modify your vacation plans slightly and you can discover a new and fascinating world on a green vacation.

"Green" has a number of meanings for a gardener. It's the obvious color of choice for strong plants, it's a synonym for someone young or inexperienced, and it identifies someone who cares about preserving and protecting the environment. With a little foresight and dedication, your travel plans can encompass all that "green" has to offer.

Let me offer an example. Last year my wife and I traveled to San Diego, California. Before we took our first step westward, we committed to minimizing our impact on the environment while maximizing our vacation experience. Our goal was to make it green, and in the process to enjoy that highlight.

We traveled west by train along with hundreds of other travelers who wanted to avoid airplanes or cars, wanted a cheaper transportation option, or, like us, wanted to sit back and enjoy the beautiful scenery that the desert Southwest displayed, like a never-ending art museum mural.

While diesel locomotives burn fossil fuel and emit exhaust, it is minimal compared to the total auto fuel and exhaust if each of the train passengers had traveled by auto. From that first mile to the last, we used public transportation, or our feet, to venture from one location to another. We never rented a car.

Taking the train

We planned our excursions based on the available transportation and what was within walking distance of our hotel or from a bus or train stop. There wasn't anything we wanted to do that we couldn't. Our hotel was within walking distance of the train station in San Diego. That was part of the original plan. We were two blocks from a major bus and tram hub. One of the first things we did was to purchase a multi-day public transportation pass.

What may be considered a limitation by some seasoned California travelers actually opened up new experiences for us. Both my wife and I have lived in California and have traveled extensively throughout its expansive area. Like most, we always drove the highways. Traveling by train opens up whole new vistas. Our public tram and bus ride from San Diego to La Hoya enabled us to travel city streets and routes and see architecture and scenery we would have otherwise missed, and the final beach destination was the same, regardless of the mode of travel. Our tram ride to the east county area to visit friends was eye-opening.

We walked to the bay and toured the USS Midway, a real aircraft carrier. Throughout the week we walked throughout the historic Gaslamp Quarter and enjoyed wonderful meals and people-watching. We walked to the Air & Space Museum to see one of a handful of SR-71 Blackbirds on display in the U.S. and one of only two Apollo space capsules west of the Rocky Mountains.

We walked to the San Diego Zoo and took the bus back. The walk allowed us to enjoy beautiful Balboa Park, to soak in the amazing gardens and architecture. We had our pick of 15 unique museums and a handful of wonderful restaurants. Our lunch at Prado was one of the best we had during the entire week in San Diego.

The zoo is a gardener's nirvana. It is divided into many different habitats for the respective animals, and the plants are authentic to those habitats. Unique flowers and bushes and trees abound. There was flora of every size and color to examine and touch that previously was only available as a picture in a book or online site. I enjoyed walking through forest recreations and discovering jaw-dropping plants more than seeing the animals.

San Diego Zoo from the aerial tram

The city of San Diego encourages beauty and every street in the downtown area exploded with plantings on the sidewalks, on building balconies, and in store and restaurant windows. The city's concrete, steel, and glass often disappeared momentarily because of an expanse of Bougainvillea or a lemon tree on a street corner.

A lemon tree on the sidewalk

We had begun developing our concept of a green vacation the year before with a trip to Seattle, Washington and Victoria, British Columbia. We walked extensively throughout each city, experiencing shops, museums, and eateries. We used a rental car, but with specific destinations in mind: to visit Butchart Gardens, a stunning experience and one of the premier garden destinations in the world; to drive through a rainforest on the way to the west coast of Vancouver Island; and to explore the lavender fields of northwestern Washington. All were amazing journeys, especially for someone who loves plants.

Exploring Butchart Gardens

This year we'll follow the green theme in France. The train will be our primary mode of transportation. As we venture around the country each of our lodging choices are close enough to the center of each  town that we'll be able to walk to the primary tourist interests. We plan to rent bicycles for excursions into the countryside. For the week we're in Paris we'll enjoy public transportation. We'll take it to Versailles to bask in the world-famous gardens. I selected our lodging because it's within walking distance of Notre Dame Cathedral, Georges Pompidou Center, and the Louvre.

Another green aspect on such a vacation is to eat local food whenever possible. Local vegetables, fruit, meat, or fish make a smaller environmental footprint than food that is trucked in from a distant source. And local food almost always tastes better than large restaurant chains.

We've found that planning and taking a green vacation has made them more enjoyable. Our creativity explodes. Instead of doing all of the mundane touristy things that everyone else is doing, we seek out unique offerings that you might only see when you're taking your time, walking, and enjoying the experience. It's easier to duck into a shop, museum, or garden when you're strolling along a sidewalk or path than it is when you're speeding down the highway.

Not to be hypocritical, we have taken and do take other, more traditional American vacations. They involve driving and fast food and touristy activities. There is a time and place for such things. But it seems we've gained much more satisfaction and enjoyment from the green ones. Maybe it was due to the awareness that our actions served a good, global purpose. Maybe it was because the green vacations included gardens as a destination. Maybe it was because we've slowed down in our old age and are literally smelling the roses.

My wife Janelle at Butchart Gardens

Whatever the reason, a green vacation is an idea I want to share. We told all of our friends about the first one and were met with amazement, awe, and applause. A natural reaction was that it must have been difficult. On the contrary, it was quite easy, so easy that everyone who vacations should try at least some aspect.

Take a train, take a bus, take a tram, ride a bike. Walk instead of driving. Eat local food. Visit gardens. Try green options as you slow down and enjoy the journey.

Monday, June 13, 2011

Hummingbirds in the Garden

Gardeners around the world grow colorful flowers and plants to attract birds to their landscapes. But it is only in the Americas where hummingbirds grace gardens with their graceful flitting and flying. Smaller than a ping pong ball and scarcely heavier, hummingbirds enthrall lucky observers with their hovering and sideways and backward flight as they gambol among the nectar-filled flowers.

Our hummingbirds have been back for a few weeks. They're migratory and spend their winters in the warm regions of Mexico and Central America. Increasingly, some species have taken to the U.S. Southwest and are choosing to vacation there while cold and snow pummel the rest of the continent. With the arrival of warm weather, they again venture north to breed in more temperate regions. Colorado is one of the many places where hummingbirds frolic in the summer.

Not all hummingbirds migrate, but the ones that do are welcome in my garden. This year my wife was more enthusiastic than I about preparing the feeders. While I was focused on getting the new garden beds ready for planting, she was looking forward to being entertained by the tiny birds.

We removed the feeders from storage, cleaned them up, and hung them near the garden, filled with sugar water. One part sugar to four parts water is the simple formula. They don't need fancy red food coloring, and that is actually discouraged. A splash of red or yellow on the feeder helps attract them, but once they realize there is a free, nutritious meal, they'll be back regardless of the color.


Our hummingbird feeders

Hummingbirds are very smart and are supposed to have amazing memories. They have an average lifespan of five years but can live to about ten. We have no doubt that the birds in the garden now are the same ones from last year. They know a good thing.

Last year I identified the birds we see most often as Rufous hummingbirds. That may be an easy guess because Rufous hummingbirds are the most widely distributed of the hummingbirds in North America. A primary reason I decided on that identification was because of the unique sound our birds make as they patrol the garden and attack interlopers. There is a beautiful trilling sound generated by their feathers as they fly through the air. I've seen it described as a "metallic whining" and that is mostly accurate, but it doesn't adequately describe the vibrant, quavering pitch.

Hummingbirds are extremely difficult to see in flight, but with the distinctive melody of their wings betraying their position, we're able to watch as they climb and dive and quickly stop on a branch or line.

The aerial dogfights as a male protects his territory are fascinating. Last summer I was captivated by three males as they soared through simultaneous combat, with high-speed dives and precision mid-air passes. I didn't see any collisions and couldn't tell if there was contact, but after about 15 minutes one bird sat victorious on the power line above the fence. The other two were banished. Whether he was the proud defender or a cocky invader, it was his earned privilege to oversee the land.

The feeders are hanging from a pine tree to reward such bravado and to encourage the birds to stay while we wait for the flowers to bloom. I have honeysuckle and penstemon planted nearby so they can slake their endless thirst of nectar, but the birds return earlier than the flowers. When the plants do burst with their reds and purples, the birds will forgo the tree feeders for the actual blossoms.

Males and females will share in the floral color, but usually at different times. If a female or small male are feeding when the ruler of the territory arrives, they quickly adjourn to the sidelines. It's not unusual for three or four birds to wait perched on the fence while the dominant male flits confidently from flower to flower. If they should perch too close, he'll abandon his meal to chase them away, returning soon after.

As the season progresses, they'll spend more time at the feeder and at the blossoms. For now we only catch glimpses of them, for a handful of seconds, as they feed. Too quick for the camera or closer observation by us. By the end of the season they'll flirt with us as we sit in the garden or on the patio.

I enjoy many aspects of gardening and my garden. Hummingbirds make the "best of" list, but they aren't present all year (see my blog "A Farewell to Wings"). If you don't have a hummingbird feeder or flowers planted to attract them, I encourage that you start with either. For sheer enjoyment they’re an easy and simple addition to any American garden.
Gardeners around the world grow colorful flowers and plants to attract birds to their landscapes. But it is only in the Americas where hummingbirds grace gardens with their graceful flitting and flying. Smaller than a ping pong ball and scarcely heavier, hummingbirds enthrall lucky observers with their hovering and sideways and backward flight as they gambol among the nectar-filled flowers.

Our hummingbirds have been back for a few weeks. They're migratory and spend their winters in the warm regions of Mexico and Central America. Increasingly, some species have taken to the U.S. Southwest and are choosing to vacation there while cold and snow pummel the rest of the continent. With the arrival of warm weather, they again venture north to breed in more temperate regions. Colorado is one of the many places where hummingbirds frolic in the summer.

Not all hummingbirds migrate, but the ones that do are welcome in my garden. This year my wife was more enthusiastic than I about preparing the feeders. While I was focused on getting the new garden beds ready for planting, she was looking forward to being entertained by the tiny birds.

We removed the feeders from storage, cleaned them up, and hung them near the garden, filled with sugar water. One part sugar to four parts water is the simple formula. They don't need fancy red food coloring, and that is actually discouraged. A splash of red or yellow on the feeder helps attract them, but once they realize there is a free, nutritious meal, they'll be back regardless of the color.


Our hummingbird feeders

Hummingbirds are very smart and are supposed to have amazing memories. They have an average lifespan of five years but can live to about ten. We have no doubt that the birds in the garden now are the same ones from last year. They know a good thing.

Last year I identified the birds we see most often as Rufous hummingbirds. That may be an easy guess because Rufous hummingbirds are the most widely distributed of the hummingbirds in North America. A primary reason I decided on that identification was because of the unique sound our birds make as they patrol the garden and attack interlopers. There is a beautiful trilling sound generated by their feathers as they fly through the air. I've seen it described as a "metallic whining" and that is mostly accurate, but it doesn't adequately describe the vibrant, quavering pitch.

Hummingbirds are extremely difficult to see in flight, but with the distinctive melody of their wings betraying their position, we're able to watch as they climb and dive and quickly stop on a branch or line.

The aerial dogfights as a male protects his territory are fascinating. Last summer I was captivated by three males as they soared through simultaneous combat, with high-speed dives and precision mid-air passes. I didn't see any collisions and couldn't tell if there was contact, but after about 15 minutes one bird sat victorious on the power line above the fence. The other two were banished. Whether he was the proud defender or a cocky invader, it was his earned privilege to oversee the land.

The feeders are hanging from a pine tree to reward such bravado and to encourage the birds to stay while we wait for the flowers to bloom. I have honeysuckle and penstemon planted nearby so they can slake their endless thirst of nectar, but the birds return earlier than the flowers. When the plants do burst with their reds and purples, the birds will forgo the tree feeders for the actual blossoms.

Males and females will share in the floral color, but usually at different times. If a female or small male are feeding when the ruler of the territory arrives, they quickly adjourn to the sidelines. It's not unusual for three or four birds to wait perched on the fence while the dominant male flits confidently from flower to flower. If they should perch too close, he'll abandon his meal to chase them away, returning soon after.

As the season progresses, they'll spend more time at the feeder and at the blossoms. For now we only catch glimpses of them, for a handful of seconds, as they feed. Too quick for the camera or closer observation by us. By the end of the season they'll flirt with us as we sit in the garden or on the patio.

I enjoy many aspects of gardening and my garden. Hummingbirds make the "best of" list, but they aren't present all year (see my blog "
A Farewell to Wings"). If you don't have a hummingbird feeder or flowers planted to attract them, I encourage that you start with either. For sheer enjoyment they’re an easy and simple addition to any American garden.

Wednesday, June 8, 2011

Planting a Three Sisters Garden

One of the biggest complaints home gardeners have is that they don't have enough room to plant all the things they want in their gardens. By the time the tomato plants, peas, strawberries, and pumpkins are in the ground there's no room for anything else. With a little planning and selective planting. the obstacle of not enough space can be overcome. A good way to start is by planting the three sisters.

A young three sisters plot

The sisters are corn, pole beans, and squash. Planting these three plants in the same growing area follows an historical method, attributed to Native Americans, that optimizes the synergistic relationship between them. Individually they require a lot of space:  corn is wind pollinated and needs a large block of space in your garden to sustain the number of plants required for efficient kernel development; beans need a trellis support system to keep them off the ground so they can be harvested easily; squash spreads rapidly and blankets a large area. Planted separately these three crops can encompass an entire garden, but when planted as sisters the space required drops dramatically.

The concept behind "three sisters" planting is that each of these plants supports the others. The corn is the supportive sister, planted first, marking the territory. The pole bean is the enriching sister planted to climb up the supporting stalks of corn, adding nitrogen to the soil with their root nodules for the hungry corn. The squash is the protective sister that is planted next to the corn and beans, spreading out between the stalks like a living mulch, shading the soil, and keeping it cool and free from weeds.

Traditionally the sisters are planted in that order. Four to seven corn seeds are planted in late spring a few weeks after the last frost date in the center of a two- to three-feet wide, low, flattened, round mound. Additional mounds are placed about four to five feet apart on center. When the corn is about 6 inches tall,  6 to 10 bean seeds are planted in each of those mounds about 6 inches away from the base of a corn stalk. After the beans sprout, five or six squash seeds are planted in a ring 10 or 12 inches outside the beans.

As the beans grow up the corn, you can assist by wrapping the vines around the stalks to make best use of the green trellis. As the squash vines grow, you can pick them up and turn the ends to weave through the stalks to cover the entire soil base. Some of the plants may need to be thinned out so they have enough room to grow and some weeding will still be necessary, but each of these plants should provide ample food to a household desiring to enjoy corn, beans, and squash.

Following the traditional three sisters method works best if you garden in an region with a long growing season. From the time you plant the corn to the time you plant the squash, about a month may have passed. It makes sense to follow the process so you can maintain order and sow each successive seed in its appropriate spot. If planted all at once the beans and squash may overtake and cover the corn before it is tall enough to support itself.

However, if you live in an area with a short growing season, like me, you can still plant the three sisters, but with a few modifications. I don't have an extra month to spare and the delay in planting the squash may mean I won't have a harvest before the first frost in fall.

I plant my sisters all at the same time after the last frost. I lay out a series of mounded rows about two feet apart. I place a corn seed every 10 inches, or so, and plant four bean seeds in a square a few inches away from the corn. I put a squash seed in between each of these groupings. Typically, I'll only plant squash in one row; I don't need to harvest that much squash and the plants in one row are enough to spread out and cover multiple rows.

Planting the seeds

My soil is amended well and I often supplement with granular fertilizer at planting. The beans help add nitrogen to the soil, but fertilizer at planting and at least one more application mid-season helps supply nutrients to the hungry corn and squash.

All of the seeds are planted about one inch deep and all will germinate at about the same time. And, yes, it may be a little confusing when all of the plants sprout from the soil at the same time, but I've never had a problem with them. Corn looks different with its straight shoots, the squash will have broader leaves, and the beans will have little tendrils at their tips. I do have to play an active role in directing the growth of the beans and squash so they don't overwhelm the corn, but it's not a major issue.

By planting the three sisters you make efficient use of your garden space and cut down on some maintenance issues. In the beds where I only grow pole beans, I have to erect a trellis. Where I only grow corn, there are always too many weeds to deal with. Where I only grow squash, much of the soil is  wasted as the vines cover it.

My seeds ready for sowing

It doesn't matter what kind of corn, bean, and squash you use for a three sisters garden. This year I'm planting sweet corn, a purple pole bean, and crookneck squash. In years past I've planted popcorn, green beans, and butternut squash. It's your garden so you can choose whatever variety of plant you desire.

Whether you follow the traditional process or opt for a modified version, a three sisters garden deserves a place in your garden. It's efficient, visually stunning, and a great opportunity to teach yourself and others about a farming method that has worked well for centuries.
One of the biggest complaints home gardeners have is that they don't have enough room to plant all the things they want in their gardens. By the time the tomato plants, peas, strawberries, and pumpkins are in the ground there's no room for anything else. With a little planning and selective planting. the obstacle of not enough space can be overcome. A good way to start is by planting the three sisters.

A young three sisters plot

The sisters are corn, pole beans, and squash. Planting these three plants in the same growing area follows an historical method, attributed to Native Americans, that optimizes the synergistic relationship between them. Individually they require a lot of space:  corn is wind pollinated and needs a large block of space in your garden to sustain the number of plants required for efficient kernel development; beans need a trellis support system to keep them off the ground so they can be harvested easily; squash spreads rapidly and blankets a large area. Planted separately these three crops can encompass an entire garden, but when planted as sisters the space required drops dramatically.

The concept behind "three sisters" planting is that each of these plants supports the others. The corn is the supportive sister, planted first, marking the territory. The pole bean is the enriching sister planted to climb up the supporting stalks of corn, adding nitrogen to the soil with their root nodules for the hungry corn. The squash is the protective sister that is planted next to the corn and beans, spreading out between the stalks like a living mulch, shading the soil, and keeping it cool and free from weeds.

Traditionally the sisters are planted in that order. Four to seven corn seeds are planted in late spring a few weeks after the last frost date in the center of a two- to three-feet wide, low, flattened, round mound. Additional mounds are placed about four to five feet apart on center. When the corn is about 6 inches tall,  6 to 10 bean seeds are planted in each of those mounds about 6 inches away from the base of a corn stalk. After the beans sprout, five or six squash seeds are planted in a ring 10 or 12 inches outside the beans.

As the beans grow up the corn, you can assist by wrapping the vines around the stalks to make best use of the green trellis. As the squash vines grow, you can pick them up and turn the ends to weave through the stalks to cover the entire soil base. Some of the plants may need to be thinned out so they have enough room to grow and some weeding will still be necessary, but each of these plants should provide ample food to a household desiring to enjoy corn, beans, and squash.

Following the traditional three sisters method works best if you garden in an region with a long growing season. From the time you plant the corn to the time you plant the squash, about a month may have passed. It makes sense to follow the process so you can maintain order and sow each successive seed in its appropriate spot. If planted all at once the beans and squash may overtake and cover the corn before it is tall enough to support itself.

However, if you live in an area with a short growing season, like me, you can still plant the three sisters, but with a few modifications. I don't have an extra month to spare and the delay in planting the squash may mean I won't have a harvest before the first frost in fall.

I plant my sisters all at the same time after the last frost. I lay out a series of mounded rows about two feet apart. I place a corn seed every 10 inches, or so, and plant four bean seeds in a square a few inches away from the corn. I put a squash seed in between each of these groupings. Typically, I'll only plant squash in one row; I don't need to harvest that much squash and the plants in one row are enough to spread out and cover multiple rows.

Planting the seeds

My soil is amended well and I often supplement with granular fertilizer at planting. The beans help add nitrogen to the soil, but fertilizer at planting and at least one more application mid-season helps supply nutrients to the hungry corn and squash.

All of the seeds are planted about one inch deep and all will germinate at about the same time. And, yes, it may be a little confusing when all of the plants sprout from the soil at the same time, but I've never had a problem with them. Corn looks different with its straight shoots, the squash will have broader leaves, and the beans will have little tendrils at their tips. I do have to play an active role in directing the growth of the beans and squash so they don't overwhelm the corn, but it's not a major issue.

By planting the three sisters you make efficient use of your garden space and cut down on some maintenance issues. In the beds where I only grow pole beans, I have to erect a trellis. Where I only grow corn, there are always too many weeds to deal with. Where I only grow squash, much of the soil is  wasted as the vines cover it.

My seeds ready for sowing

It doesn't matter what kind of corn, bean, and squash you use for a three sisters garden. This year I'm planting sweet corn, a purple pole bean, and crookneck squash. In years past I've planted popcorn, green beans, and butternut squash. It's your garden so you can choose whatever variety of plant you desire.

Whether you follow the traditional process or opt for a modified version, a three sisters garden deserves a place in your garden. It's efficient, visually stunning, and a great opportunity to teach yourself and others about a farming method that has worked well for centuries.

Sunday, June 5, 2011

Compost and Your Compost Pile, Part 4 -- Compost Maintenance

Compost will happen in your garden when microorganisms have organic material to eat in the presence of moisture and air. Once you establish a compost pile, neglect on your part will still produce compost, but it may take a very long time. Regular action by you can produce vibrant compost in just a few weeks.

How much time you spend on your pile corresponds with the two basic methods of composting: "cold" composting and "hot" composting. As I've mentioned previously, the activity of the microorganisms in a compost pile generates heat and that heat increases their activity even more. When there is reduced microorganism activity and decreased decomposition, the process generates little heat and the result is a "cold"pile. This is the same process that naturally occurs on a forest floor. The organic material of leaves, needles, and wood will decay, but it may take years. If left to decompose naturally, your "cold" compost pile can take years to produce compost.

If you increase the water and oxygen available to the microorganisms, they become more active. In ideal conditions a compost pile can reach temperatures of 160F (71C) degrees. That's hot. Beyond that point the bacteria can actually die in the heat they've created. It's difficult for gardeners to have a pile that gets that hot, but 120F degrees isn't hard to do. Around that temperature organic material breaks down very quickly. This is "hot" composting.

There are two basic maintenance steps for creating compost in the "hot" method, assuming you have a good blend of greens and browns. The first is to aerate your pile. As the microorganisms grow and multiply they use up oxygen. They can suffocate themselves with an increased population so you need to ensure there is always enough oxygen in the pile. Aerating a compost pile is simply "turning the pile." With a spade, rake, or garden fork (what I recommend) you take the bottom of the pile and put it on top and take the sides and put them in the middle. You're fluffing up and mixing the material so there is more oxygen throughout.

Turning the pile

The second maintenance step is maintaining a good moisture content. The microorganisms need water and if you let the pile dry out they'll stop eating, go dormant, and some may die. Your compost pile should be moist. Think of a wrung-out sponge. You stick your hand in the center of the pile and pull out the decomposing material. If you can squeeze water out of it, it's too wet; if it crumbles; it's too dry; if it feels moist and compacts when you squeeze, it's good.

I don't think it's critical that your pile be perfectly balanced with all of it the same moisture level. The outside of it will dry out sooner than the middle and the middle will always be wetter than the edges. What's important is that you regularly add water to your pile to keep it from drying out. That is, unless you live in a very wet region, in which case you should be ready to add dry material to the pile and keep it covered (a tarp works well) to avoid it becoming too wet.

Watering the pile

The idea is to give the microorganisms a good mix of air and water. If you overdo it on the water, don't worry. The outer surface will dry out and the next time you turn the pile you'll be blending the dry outside with the wet inside. If it dries out a little just add water. They'll adapt to the conditions.

If you want compost fast, start with a large mass and small pieces of organic material. Turn your pile at least once a week and maintain a constant moisture level. With constant attention, your pile can turn to compost in as little as month. I've seen claims of tumblers and closed systems turning yard waste into compost in as little as two weeks. I've never seen that happen and doubt the validity of those kind of claims.

If you aren't in that much of a hurry, turn your compost every two weeks and add water occasionally. You should be able to have compost in about three months.

If you have patience or don't want to make that much effort, turn your pile once a month, add water when you think about it, and you'll have compost in about six months. If you just turn your pile a few times and wait for the rain, you can expect it to take about a year.

I suggest multiple bins or piles if you have the space. With two or three bins you rotate the decomposing material between the bins. Start with the pile on the left, add material to it, turn it, add water, and get it to the mass you are aiming for. At that point when it comes time to turn the pile, turn it upside down into the next bin to the right. While you continue maintaining it, begin adding new material to the now-empty bin on the left. About the time the right pile is ready, the left pile will be ready to turn over, so harvest the compost on the right, or move it to another bin (in a three-bin system) to continue decomposing, move the left pile to the right, and begin the sequence again. This is the basic method I use most often.

One pile almost finished and one just started

Right now I'm using an open structure as my primary compost pile (the pallet one) and am using a closed structure as the preliminary decomposer. Soon I'll harvest the compost from the pile and dump the material from the plastic bin into that space. Then I'll begin filling the plastic bin again. There's no reason the piles have to be next to each other and of the same design.

With work you can compost all year. I know a gardener who treated composting very scientifically, using a thermometer on a daily basis to check the progress of his pile. He was able to maintain pile temperatures above 100F degrees when the outside air temperature was below freezing. He'd have to cover his pile with a tarp to hold in the heat, but he was able to make compost in very cold conditions. It took a lot of effort.

I take a much slower, less energy approach. I'll do the important steps of turning the pile and keeping it moist during the growing season. At some point in the summer I'll collect  the compost. I often use partially decomposed material as a mulch on the plants. For finished compost I usually add it to my garden soil at the end of the season so it has a winter to integrate with the soil.

During late fall and winter I don't make any effort to keep the pile hot; the bacteria slow down, go dormant, and stop decomposing. That's okay because they'll be ready to go when I begin turning and watering the pile in the spring. During those cold months I continue to add to the pile with all of my normal kitchen waste and any other prunings and garden clean-up. When the weather is warm and I'm back outside, there is plenty of material to form a good mass.

My bucket is always on the counter

I am always on the lookout for composting material. I make a point to collect and save leaves in the fall. They're a great brown material. I use a leaf blower in vacuum mode and suck up the leaves. They're shredded in the process and are perfect for my pile.

Collecting leaves

I will often ask neighbors for their bags of leaves when they leave them on the curb for trash pickup. I've even been known to stop and ask strangers if I can have their bags. They did all the work collecting them and I get to turn them into marvelous compost. Along the way I've created a few converts to composting.

My neighbor's leaves ready for my pile

Composting is one of the best things you can do in the wonderful world of gardening. Not only are you learning about how bacteria and other creatures break down organics, but you're recycling refuse that would probably add to an overloaded landfill, not doing anyone any good. I get a great deal of satisfaction and a feeling of accomplishment from my piles. One of my readers mentioned to me that she and her husband were planning to start a pile yesterday. How about you?
Compost will happen in your garden when microorganisms have organic material to eat in the presence of moisture and air. Once you establish a compost pile, neglect on your part will still produce compost, but it may take a very long time. Regular action by you can produce vibrant compost in just a few weeks.

How much time you spend on your pile corresponds with the two basic methods of composting: "cold" composting and "hot" composting. As I've mentioned previously, the activity of the microorganisms in a compost pile generates heat and that heat increases their activity even more. When there is reduced microorganism activity and decreased decomposition, the process generates little heat and the result is a "cold"pile. This is the same process that naturally occurs on a forest floor. The organic material of leaves, needles, and wood will decay, but it may take years. If left to decompose naturally, your "cold" compost pile can take years to produce compost.

If you increase the water and oxygen available to the microorganisms, they become more active. In ideal conditions a compost pile can reach temperatures of 160F (71C) degrees. That's hot. Beyond that point the bacteria can actually die in the heat they've created. It's difficult for gardeners to have a pile that gets that hot, but 120F degrees isn't hard to do. Around that temperature organic material breaks down very quickly. This is "hot" composting.

There are two basic maintenance steps for creating compost in the "hot" method, assuming you have a good blend of greens and browns. The first is to aerate your pile. As the microorganisms grow and multiply they use up oxygen. They can suffocate themselves with an increased population so you need to ensure there is always enough oxygen in the pile. Aerating a compost pile is simply "turning the pile." With a spade, rake, or garden fork (what I recommend) you take the bottom of the pile and put it on top and take the sides and put them in the middle. You're fluffing up and mixing the material so there is more oxygen throughout.

Turning the pile

The second maintenance step is maintaining a good moisture content. The microorganisms need water and if you let the pile dry out they'll stop eating, go dormant, and some may die. Your compost pile should be moist. Think of a wrung-out sponge. You stick your hand in the center of the pile and pull out the decomposing material. If you can squeeze water out of it, it's too wet; if it crumbles; it's too dry; if it feels moist and compacts when you squeeze, it's good.

I don't think it's critical that your pile be perfectly balanced with all of it the same moisture level. The outside of it will dry out sooner than the middle and the middle will always be wetter than the edges. What's important is that you regularly add water to your pile to keep it from drying out. That is, unless you live in a very wet region, in which case you should be ready to add dry material to the pile and keep it covered (a tarp works well) to avoid it becoming too wet.

Watering the pile

The idea is to give the microorganisms a good mix of air and water. If you overdo it on the water, don't worry. The outer surface will dry out and the next time you turn the pile you'll be blending the dry outside with the wet inside. If it dries out a little just add water. They'll adapt to the conditions.

If you want compost fast, start with a large mass and small pieces of organic material. Turn your pile at least once a week and maintain a constant moisture level. With constant attention, your pile can turn to compost in as little as month. I've seen claims of tumblers and closed systems turning yard waste into compost in as little as two weeks. I've never seen that happen and doubt the validity of those kind of claims.

If you aren't in that much of a hurry, turn your compost every two weeks and add water occasionally. You should be able to have compost in about three months.

If you have patience or don't want to make that much effort, turn your pile once a month, add water when you think about it, and you'll have compost in about six months. If you just turn your pile a few times and wait for the rain, you can expect it to take about a year.

I suggest multiple bins or piles if you have the space. With two or three bins you rotate the decomposing material between the bins. Start with the pile on the left, add material to it, turn it, add water, and get it to the mass you are aiming for. At that point when it comes time to turn the pile, turn it upside down into the next bin to the right. While you continue maintaining it, begin adding new material to the now-empty bin on the left. About the time the right pile is ready, the left pile will be ready to turn over, so harvest the compost on the right, or move it to another bin (in a three-bin system) to continue decomposing, move the left pile to the right, and begin the sequence again. This is the basic method I use most often.

One pile almost finished and one just started

Right now I'm using an open structure as my primary compost pile (the pallet one) and am using a closed structure as the preliminary decomposer. Soon I'll harvest the compost from the pile and dump the material from the plastic bin into that space. Then I'll begin filling the plastic bin again. There's no reason the piles have to be next to each other and of the same design.

With work you can compost all year. I know a gardener who treated composting very scientifically, using a thermometer on a daily basis to check the progress of his pile. He was able to maintain pile temperatures above 100F degrees when the outside air temperature was below freezing. He'd have to cover his pile with a tarp to hold in the heat, but he was able to make compost in very cold conditions. It took a lot of effort.

I take a much slower, less energy approach. I'll do the important steps of turning the pile and keeping it moist during the growing season. At some point in the summer I'll collect  the compost. I often use partially decomposed material as a mulch on the plants. For finished compost I usually add it to my garden soil at the end of the season so it has a winter to integrate with the soil.

During late fall and winter I don't make any effort to keep the pile hot; the bacteria slow down, go dormant, and stop decomposing. That's okay because they'll be ready to go when I begin turning and watering the pile in the spring. During those cold months I continue to add to the pile with all of my normal kitchen waste and any other prunings and garden clean-up. When the weather is warm and I'm back outside, there is plenty of material to form a good mass.

My bucket is always on the counter

I am always on the lookout for composting material. I make a point to collect and save leaves in the fall. They're a great brown material. I use a leaf blower in vacuum mode and suck up the leaves. They're shredded in the process and are perfect for my pile.

Collecting leaves

I will often ask neighbors for their bags of leaves when they leave them on the curb for trash pickup. I've even been known to stop and ask strangers if I can have their bags. They did all the work collecting them and I get to turn them into marvelous compost. Along the way I've created a few converts to composting.

My neighbor's leaves ready for my pile

Composting is one of the best things you can do in the wonderful world of gardening. Not only are you learning about how bacteria and other creatures break down organics, but you're recycling refuse that would probably add to an overloaded landfill, not doing anyone any good. I get a great deal of satisfaction and a feeling of accomplishment from my piles. One of my readers mentioned to me that she and her husband were planning to start a pile yesterday. How about you?

Thursday, June 2, 2011

Compost and Your Compost Pile, Part 3 -- The Pile

Compost is a natural result of natural forces. In nature, organic material breaks down and decays when it encounters the billions of bacteria, fungi, and other microorganisms that are all around us all of the time. Insects and animals also play a role. This decomposition breaks down organic material into simpler components and elements. It is these component elements in compost that improve soil and can be used by plants.

Two of the bacteria types that work to decompose fall into these categories: aerobic and anaerobic. Aerobic bacteria are living organisms that require oxygen to survive; anaerobic bacteria do not require oxygen for growth and may actually die when exposed to it. The decomposition by these bacteria releases nutrients present in the organic material and releases it back into the environment.

As I mentioned in the earlier article, the microorganisms that break down organic matter require three things: food, water, and oxygen. How you control those three components determines how quickly your pile decomposes. Notice I mention oxygen. You want the aerobic bacteria in your pile. They're efficient and don't produce a bad smell as a byproduct of decomposition like anaerobic bacteria do.

Composting is an activity that offers control over the decomposition process. One part of the process where you influence the make-up of your pile is in the choice of what you compost and how you do it.


You decide what food the microorganisms eat. Just about anything organic is on the menu. These organics fall into the two broad categories of plant-based or animal-based material. Plant-based organics are derived from plants, living or dead. Animal-based organics include actual parts of an animal, but most often consist of animal waste products, usually in the form of manure.

I've already mentioned a number of plant-based items you can throw in your compost pile that come from the kitchen and garden. Some of these things are obvious, like banana peels, celery tops, leftover salad, tea bags, leaves, watermelon rind, and dried out flower arrangements. Don't limit yourself to obvious contributions. Think about things you would throw away that are plant-based products. Things like pizza boxes, coffee filters, stale bread, toilet paper rolls, used cotton balls, leftover rice, stale beer, dryer lint, used paper plates, and shredded bills can all be composted.

Many animal-based items can also be tossed in the compost pile, with some important restrictions. Pet hair, egg shells, and old wool shirts can be used. Manures of all types from plant-eating animals should be a regular addition to your pile. While bones, meat, fat, and fish guts are organic and will decompose, I don't recommend them for most compost piles. Besides smelling bad as they decompose, those ingredients can attract cats, dogs, bears, and many other wild animals that will tear up your pile looking for the smelly food and you probably don't not want them in your garden. Never add cat or dog feces; they can transmit diseases. If you need to add nitrogen to balance the carbon, blood meal and bone meal are good sources, if you don't have local animals that will tear up your pile to eat them.

Rabbit manure and wood shavings before composting

Generally, plant-based material should make up the large majority of what you compost. The manures you'll compost from horses, cows, and rabbits still have a good quantity of plant material in them and can almost be considered plant-based for purposes of composting.

You have a few options of how you add material to your pile. You can take the easy (semi-lazy) way by adding material when it is available. This is the approach I take most of the time. You rake leaves; throw them on the pile. You prune your raspberry canes; throw them on the pile. You have a bucket of grapefruit halves and watermelon rinds; throw them on the pile. You have a half-dozen broken jack-o-lanterns; throw them on the pile. The pile can grow to a large mass pretty quickly, but the pieces will be big and chunky.

Lots of chunks in my compost bin

The other option is to reduce the size of the pieces before you add them to the pile. Shred the leaves, chop up the canes, cut the rinds, and crush the pumpkins. By shredding, chopping, cutting, and crushing the material beforehand you decrease their individual size, but in the process you're actually increasing the overall surface area of the combined pieces. With many small pieces and greater surface area, the microorganisms have more spaces to grow on and eat upon. Smaller pieces decompose faster. It takes more work to reduce the size of material, but it speeds up the process.

Shredding material for the compost pile

There are some materials that take longer to decompose even when cut into smaller pieces. Dried needles and wood from resinous plants will break down, but not as quickly as comparable pieces from other plants. Think in terms of pine needles, cedar bark, and  fir sawdust. Add them to your pile but don't be surprised if you can still see needles and bark when the rest of the pile is dark compost.

There are things that will never decompose no matter how long you have them in your pile. They can almost always be categorized as inorganic. Stones, rubber chunks, and plastic bottles won't decompose. Some metals will tarnish or rust, but they don't deserve a place in your pile. Glass, ceramic, and clay pots may literally break down in your pile, but they don't add any nutrients and should be avoided. Keep your pile organic.

Once all of the material is in the pile, it decomposes quickly or slowly depending on the amount of water and air that are added to the mix. When the microorganisms are busy they generate heat and that heat encourages the growth of more organisms. More organisms means there's a need for more oxygen. This is where you decide how much effort you'll make in your composting activities. And that's where I'll pick it up again in the next article.
Compost is a natural result of natural forces. In nature, organic material breaks down and decays when it encounters the billions of bacteria, fungi, and other microorganisms that are all around us all of the time. Insects and animals also play a role. This decomposition breaks down organic material into simpler components and elements. It is these component elements in compost that improve soil and can be used by plants.

Two of the bacteria types that work to decompose fall into these categories: aerobic and anaerobic. Aerobic bacteria are living organisms that require oxygen to survive; anaerobic bacteria do not require oxygen for growth and may actually die when exposed to it. The decomposition by these bacteria releases nutrients present in the organic material and releases it back into the environment.

As I mentioned in the earlier article, the microorganisms that break down organic matter require three things: food, water, and oxygen. How you control those three components determines how quickly your pile decomposes. Notice I mention oxygen. You want the aerobic bacteria in your pile. They're efficient and don't produce a bad smell as a byproduct of decomposition like anaerobic bacteria do.

Composting is an activity that offers control over the decomposition process. One part of the process where you influence the make-up of your pile is in the choice of what you compost and how you do it.


You decide what food the microorganisms eat. Just about anything organic is on the menu. These organics fall into the two broad categories of plant-based or animal-based material. Plant-based organics are derived from plants, living or dead. Animal-based organics include actual parts of an animal, but most often consist of animal waste products, usually in the form of manure.

I've already mentioned a number of plant-based items you can throw in your compost pile that come from the kitchen and garden. Some of these things are obvious, like banana peels, celery tops, leftover salad, tea bags, leaves, watermelon rind, and dried out flower arrangements. Don't limit yourself to obvious contributions. Think about things you would throw away that are plant-based products. Things like pizza boxes, coffee filters, stale bread, toilet paper rolls, used cotton balls, leftover rice, stale beer, dryer lint, used paper plates, and shredded bills can all be composted.

Many animal-based items can also be tossed in the compost pile, with some important restrictions. Pet hair, egg shells, and old wool shirts can be used. Manures of all types from plant-eating animals should be a regular addition to your pile. While bones, meat, fat, and fish guts are organic and will decompose, I don't recommend them for most compost piles. Besides smelling bad as they decompose, those ingredients can attract cats, dogs, bears, and many other wild animals that will tear up your pile looking for the smelly food and you probably don't not want them in your garden. Never add cat or dog feces; they can transmit diseases. If you need to add nitrogen to balance the carbon, blood meal and bone meal are good sources, if you don't have local animals that will tear up your pile to eat them.

Rabbit manure and wood shavings before composting

Generally, plant-based material should make up the large majority of what you compost. The manures you'll compost from horses, cows, and rabbits still have a good quantity of plant material in them and can almost be considered plant-based for purposes of composting.

You have a few options of how you add material to your pile. You can take the easy (semi-lazy) way by adding material when it is available. This is the approach I take most of the time. You rake leaves; throw them on the pile. You prune your raspberry canes; throw them on the pile. You have a bucket of grapefruit halves and watermelon rinds; throw them on the pile. You have a half-dozen broken jack-o-lanterns; throw them on the pile. The pile can grow to a large mass pretty quickly, but the pieces will be big and chunky.

Lots of chunks in my compost bin

The other option is to reduce the size of the pieces before you add them to the pile. Shred the leaves, chop up the canes, cut the rinds, and crush the pumpkins. By shredding, chopping, cutting, and crushing the material beforehand you decrease their individual size, but in the process you're actually increasing the overall surface area of the combined pieces. With many small pieces and greater surface area, the microorganisms have more spaces to grow on and eat upon. Smaller pieces decompose faster. It takes more work to reduce the size of material, but it speeds up the process.

Shredding material for the compost pile

There are some materials that take longer to decompose even when cut into smaller pieces. Dried needles and wood from resinous plants will break down, but not as quickly as comparable pieces from other plants. Think in terms of pine needles, cedar bark, and  fir sawdust. Add them to your pile but don't be surprised if you can still see needles and bark when the rest of the pile is dark compost.

There are things that will never decompose no matter how long you have them in your pile. They can almost always be categorized as inorganic. Stones, rubber chunks, and plastic bottles won't decompose. Some metals will tarnish or rust, but they don't deserve a place in your pile. Glass, ceramic, and clay pots may literally break down in your pile, but they don't add any nutrients and should be avoided. Keep your pile organic.

Once all of the material is in the pile, it decomposes quickly or slowly depending on the amount of water and air that are added to the mix. When the microorganisms are busy they generate heat and that heat encourages the growth of more organisms. More organisms means there's a need for more oxygen. This is where you decide how much effort you'll make in your composting activities. And that's where I'll pick it up again in the next article.

Wednesday, June 1, 2011

Compost and Your Compost Pile, Part 2 -- Composting Structures

Compost is amazing. Of the many gardening activities I participate in, composting is one I am passionate about completely. To take kitchen scraps, weeds, lawn clippings, rotten fruit, coffee grounds, and a myriad of other organic matter and turn it into a compound that magically improves soil and garden productivity, while bypassing the garbage truck and city landfill, is fascinating and rewarding.

I covered the basic process behind composting in my earlier article, "Compost and Your Compost Pile, Part1". Today I'll cover some preliminary steps that will allow you to start your compost pile.

Let's begin with location and structure. As briefly mentioned in the previous article, locate your compost pile near your garden. If you've followed some of my earlier advice, your garden is located close enough to your house that it isn't a arduous journey to walk to it. Since most of what you'll add to your pile comes from the garden and kitchen, it makes sense that its location is close to both. One of the reasons for composting is to use the finished compost in your garden soil so it makes sense again to locate it near its ultimate end.

My piles near the garden

A well-managed compost pile will not smell bad so you don't need to worry about sticking it in an out-of-the-way spot to avoid terrible aromas. In fact, finished compost has an earthy, clean, warm smell. My compost piles are always near the garden with enough space in front of them that I can maneuver a wheelbarrow to unload organic refuse and later load up with dark, crumbly compost.

The microorganisms don't require sunlight to decompose material so you shouldn't worry about how much shade is on the pile. That is unless you plan to do year-round composting and live in a cold region. Sun will help heat up the pile and in the winter can help keep the pile from freezing; a full-sun location may be preferred. Alternatively if you live in a very dry region locating the pile in the shade may help keep it from drying out too quickly.

The size of your pile is also a factor in determining its location. If you plan to have a single big pile you only need enough space to handle a planned mass with a footprint of about 16 square feet (four feet by four feet). If you want to do a two-pile or three-pile setup, you need to plan for more space, to include paths to and from the piles.

The type of compost pile you have is a factor in selecting the site so let's discuss structure options for composting. Beyond a single pile resting on the ground, most gardeners use some type of structure. Composting structures are open or closed, with open structures usually being some type of cage or box to hold the pile together and closed structures being a type of container that fully encloses the composting material. I find that open structures allow more flexibility in composting and are often easier to manage.

When I planned my last garden, I laid out the spot for a two-pile system and sank 4x4 posts in the ground. The posts framed two, four feet by four feet areas and rose about five feet above the base soil. I secured four-feet high, plastic garden fencing around and in between the posts to create thin walls. The front was open, though I used extra wire fencing to block it and keep the dogs out of the piles.

My two-pile structure

When we moved to our new house, I set up a compost pile right away, before I knew where the garden would be. For this more mobile, temporary structure I nailed together wooden pallets to frame three walls; another pallet served as a removable front. Later this year, once I finish laying out my vegetable garden and put a fence around it, I'll build a more permanent three-pile setup from 2x4 lumber closer to the garden.

My simple pallet structure

For a movable structure that can be located directly on a garden plot, I've used rigid, four-feet high fencing (metal or plastic). A 12-feet long section formed into a circle with the ends attached together creates a space that is four feet in diameter and four feet in height, perfect for a compost pile. When the compost is finished you simply remove the external fencing and the compost falls directly on the spot where you'll use it.

My movable fence system

The idea behind open structures is to help contain all of the composting material as the mass builds. Whether you use wood, plastic, or metal, the structure creates a framework that supports the size of your pile. The structure can be permanent or temporary. Stacked cinder blocks or bricks can be used to create a compost structure. Stacked bales of straw will contain a pile and will also add some material to the decomposing process. Even walled mounds of soil can form a structure.

Open composting structures have some advantages. You can add material to the pile regularly because the top and sides are often open or easily accessible. The cost of building the framework can be negligible if you re-use the components from other projects, like fencing, cinder blocks, wood, or pallets; even new material isn't that expensive. Conducting the regular activities of managing the pile (which I'll cover in another article) is easy because the structure is designed to be accessible. The size of the pile and how much material you compost is flexible; you control the size of the structure. Organisms like beetles and earthworms, important creatures in the decomposition process, are free to enter the pile and do their work. When it comes time to collect the finished compost, all you need is a shovel and wheelbarrow.

Open composting structures have some disadvantages as well. The open structure allows access to animals and pests as well. Exposed to sun and wind, piles tend to dry out quickly and extra water needs to be added to maintain moist conditions. They can be unsightly to some gardeners. Once you start your pile it's not easy to move it.

The other composting option is a closed structure. A closed composting structure fully contains the composting material. These are often made of plastic and are the ones you see sold as a "composter". They're a four-sided box with a lid, a barrel with a trap door, or a big ball with a screw top. Typically you load all of your organic material into the closed structure and leave it until it is fully composted. If it is a barrel system that you hand-turn regularly, there is very little maintenance. If it is a tower system you'll need to add water and air to the material to keep it decomposing.

My closed structure

The advantages and disadvantages of closed structure are nearly opposite those of an open structure. Because the access is usually through a single opening, it isn't as accessible. The cost of most closed structures is higher and can be quite expensive (unless you just use a heavy duty trash bag as the container). Managing the pile (adding water and aerating) can be difficult without special tools. Many structures sold in stores are too small to build sufficient mass and the material takes a very long time to decompose. Only bacteria is at work because other microorganisms and insects don't have access to the pile. Collecting the finished compost can be difficult because of the limited single-door access.

On the flip side, they're very effective at keeping animals from the pile, they don't dry out as quickly, they are orderly, and can be aesthetically pleasing. They're also highly portable so you can change locations easily.

You might ascertain that I prefer open structures. I do. My first foray into composting was with a plastic closed system that I purchased (not inexpensively) from our local utilities company. I filled it from the small opening at the top, layered greens and browns, kept it as moist as I could (which was hard to determine due to the closed sides), and tried to add air to the material. The width of the square base was less than two feet on each side; it was just over three feet tall. After two years of regular attention, the material didn't look anything like compost. I know many other gardeners who tried these small tower composters and had similar results. I don't recommend them.

I haven't had success with this type

The big barrel composters, or "tumblers",  that you hand rotate do work pretty well. They hold a good mass of material, are efficient at maintaining moisture levels, and add oxygen when you rotate them. Their trapdoor design that can make unloading the finished compost tricky. The biggest critique is the cost; they can be very expensive. If you can afford it and don't like getting your hands dirty, this may be the system for you.

With open structures, you'll need to add water regularly because they dry out so consider locating them in a spot that has easy access to a water source. With closed structures, particularly the big barrels, you won't need to add as much water so you can locate them just about anywhere; they can be placed just outside your back door.

I like connecting with the soil and my plants and I think of compost the same way. Seeing the colors change during decomposition, sticking my hand in the pile to see if it's warm, and feeling the finished product all add to the sensory pleasure of gardening. Open structures give me more feedback about the process.

In my next couple articles I'll continue with information about managing a compost pile. It's not hard, but it does take some work.
Compost is amazing. Of the many gardening activities I participate in, composting is one I am passionate about completely. To take kitchen scraps, weeds, lawn clippings, rotten fruit, coffee grounds, and a myriad of other organic matter and turn it into a compound that magically improves soil and garden productivity, while bypassing the garbage truck and city landfill, is fascinating and rewarding.

I covered the basic process behind composting in my earlier article, "
Compost and Your Compost Pile, Part1". Today I'll cover some preliminary steps that will allow you to start your compost pile.

Let's begin with location and structure. As briefly mentioned in the previous article, locate your compost pile near your garden. If you've followed some of my earlier advice, your garden is located close enough to your house that it isn't a arduous journey to walk to it. Since most of what you'll add to your pile comes from the garden and kitchen, it makes sense that its location is close to both. One of the reasons for composting is to use the finished compost in your garden soil so it makes sense again to locate it near its ultimate end.

My piles near the garden

A well-managed compost pile will not smell bad so you don't need to worry about sticking it in an out-of-the-way spot to avoid terrible aromas. In fact, finished compost has an earthy, clean, warm smell. My compost piles are always near the garden with enough space in front of them that I can maneuver a wheelbarrow to unload organic refuse and later load up with dark, crumbly compost.

The microorganisms don't require sunlight to decompose material so you shouldn't worry about how much shade is on the pile. That is unless you plan to do year-round composting and live in a cold region. Sun will help heat up the pile and in the winter can help keep the pile from freezing; a full-sun location may be preferred. Alternatively if you live in a very dry region locating the pile in the shade may help keep it from drying out too quickly.

The size of your pile is also a factor in determining its location. If you plan to have a single big pile you only need enough space to handle a planned mass with a footprint of about 16 square feet (four feet by four feet). If you want to do a two-pile or three-pile setup, you need to plan for more space, to include paths to and from the piles.

The type of compost pile you have is a factor in selecting the site so let's discuss structure options for composting. Beyond a single pile resting on the ground, most gardeners use some type of structure. Composting structures are open or closed, with open structures usually being some type of cage or box to hold the pile together and closed structures being a type of container that fully encloses the composting material. I find that open structures allow more flexibility in composting and are often easier to manage.

When I planned my last garden, I laid out the spot for a two-pile system and sank 4x4 posts in the ground. The posts framed two, four feet by four feet areas and rose about five feet above the base soil. I secured four-feet high, plastic garden fencing around and in between the posts to create thin walls. The front was open, though I used extra wire fencing to block it and keep the dogs out of the piles.

My two-pile structure

When we moved to our new house, I set up a compost pile right away, before I knew where the garden would be. For this more mobile, temporary structure I nailed together wooden pallets to frame three walls; another pallet served as a removable front. Later this year, once I finish laying out my vegetable garden and put a fence around it, I'll build a more permanent three-pile setup from 2x4 lumber closer to the garden.

My simple pallet structure

For a movable structure that can be located directly on a garden plot, I've used rigid, four-feet high fencing (metal or plastic). A 12-feet long section formed into a circle with the ends attached together creates a space that is four feet in diameter and four feet in height, perfect for a compost pile. When the compost is finished you simply remove the external fencing and the compost falls directly on the spot where you'll use it.

My movable fence system

The idea behind open structures is to help contain all of the composting material as the mass builds. Whether you use wood, plastic, or metal, the structure creates a framework that supports the size of your pile. The structure can be permanent or temporary. Stacked cinder blocks or bricks can be used to create a compost structure. Stacked bales of straw will contain a pile and will also add some material to the decomposing process. Even walled mounds of soil can form a structure.

Open composting structures have some advantages. You can add material to the pile regularly because the top and sides are often open or easily accessible. The cost of building the framework can be negligible if you re-use the components from other projects, like fencing, cinder blocks, wood, or pallets; even new material isn't that expensive. Conducting the regular activities of managing the pile (which I'll cover in another article) is easy because the structure is designed to be accessible. The size of the pile and how much material you compost is flexible; you control the size of the structure. Organisms like beetles and earthworms, important creatures in the decomposition process, are free to enter the pile and do their work. When it comes time to collect the finished compost, all you need is a shovel and wheelbarrow.

Open composting structures have some disadvantages as well. The open structure allows access to animals and pests as well. Exposed to sun and wind, piles tend to dry out quickly and extra water needs to be added to maintain moist conditions. They can be unsightly to some gardeners. Once you start your pile it's not easy to move it.

The other composting option is a closed structure. A closed composting structure fully contains the composting material. These are often made of plastic and are the ones you see sold as a "composter". They're a four-sided box with a lid, a barrel with a trap door, or a big ball with a screw top. Typically you load all of your organic material into the closed structure and leave it until it is fully composted. If it is a barrel system that you hand-turn regularly, there is very little maintenance. If it is a tower system you'll need to add water and air to the material to keep it decomposing.

My closed structure

The advantages and disadvantages of closed structure are nearly opposite those of an open structure. Because the access is usually through a single opening, it isn't as accessible. The cost of most closed structures is higher and can be quite expensive (unless you just use a heavy duty trash bag as the container). Managing the pile (adding water and aerating) can be difficult without special tools. Many structures sold in stores are too small to build sufficient mass and the material takes a very long time to decompose. Only bacteria is at work because other microorganisms and insects don't have access to the pile. Collecting the finished compost can be difficult because of the limited single-door access.

On the flip side, they're very effective at keeping animals from the pile, they don't dry out as quickly, they are orderly, and can be aesthetically pleasing. They're also highly portable so you can change locations easily.

You might ascertain that I prefer open structures. I do. My first foray into composting was with a plastic closed system that I purchased (not inexpensively) from our local utilities company. I filled it from the small opening at the top, layered greens and browns, kept it as moist as I could (which was hard to determine due to the closed sides), and tried to add air to the material. The width of the square base was less than two feet on each side; it was just over three feet tall. After two years of regular attention, the material didn't look anything like compost. I know many other gardeners who tried these small tower composters and had similar results. I don't recommend them.

I haven't had success with this type

The big barrel composters, or "tumblers",  that you hand rotate do work pretty well. They hold a good mass of material, are efficient at maintaining moisture levels, and add oxygen when you rotate them. Their trapdoor design that can make unloading the finished compost tricky. The biggest critique is the cost; they can be very expensive. If you can afford it and don't like getting your hands dirty, this may be the system for you.

With open structures, you'll need to add water regularly because they dry out so consider locating them in a spot that has easy access to a water source. With closed structures, particularly the big barrels, you won't need to add as much water so you can locate them just about anywhere; they can be placed just outside your back door.

I like connecting with the soil and my plants and I think of compost the same way. Seeing the colors change during decomposition, sticking my hand in the pile to see if it's warm, and feeling the finished product all add to the sensory pleasure of gardening. Open structures give me more feedback about the process.

In my next couple articles I'll continue with information about managing a compost pile. It's not hard, but it does take some work.